The concept of identity crosses various disciplines: many scholars have tried to define the characteristics that make us unique individuals and distinct from others.
Henry Tajfel, author of Social Identity Theory (SIT), observes that people’s behavior in interactions can be considered along a continuum:
- at one extreme is interpersonal behavior, in which people interact mainly based on their individual characteristics;
- at the other extreme is intergroup behavior, in which individuals relate mainly on the basis of the characteristics attributed to the groups they belong to.
Social identity
Two aspects of identity correspond to these two behaviors:
- is linked to interpersonal behavior personal identitywhich refers to the specific attributes of the person and represents the sense of uniqueness compared to others;
- intergroup behavior is linked tosocial identitywhich derives from the awareness of belonging to a certain group, together with the evaluation and meaning that the person attributes to this belonging.
Tajfel identifies two fundamental processes that determine behavior in situations of confrontation between social groups:
- categorization
- social comparison.
Categorization and social comparison
There categorization it performs a double function: cognitive and identity. On the one hand, it helps simplify the complexity of the surrounding reality through the formation of categories. These categories allow you to make judgements and organize the information of daily experience, grouping and simplifying it.
When we relate to people we don’t know well, we tend to use characteristics attributed to the category in which we place them: we often resort to stereotypes. Stereotypes allow us to generalize, attributing similar characteristics to all members of a category.
“Us” vs “They”
Categorization leads to perceiving people based on the characteristics attributed to the group they belong to and produces two main effects:
- theaccentuationwhich tends to reduce the differences between members of the same category;
- The contrastwhich highlights the differences between different categories.
Social comparison serves to achieve or maintain a positive evaluation of one’s group. This process regulates differences between groups and often leads to favoring one’s own group in comparison with others.
Belonging to a group
Intergroup behavior is driven by the desire to maintain or promote a positive sense of identity. When the interaction makes people perceive a threat to their social identity, they tend to differentiate:
- thein-group (the group they feel they belong to)
- fromout-group (the group they don’t identify with)
to promote a positive self-image. If the perceived threat is particularly strong, the categorization can express itself through prejudices And stereotypes. The categorization process linked to prejudice is always accompanied by the attribution of values to a specific category.
Prejudices and stereotypes
According to social psychology professor Rupert Brown, the prejudice can be defined as a series of negative cognitive attitudes or beliefsattributed to members of a group by virtue of their membership.
The main aspect of prejudice is to attribute the same characteristics to two people from the same social group, instead reducing individual differences. This mechanism is activated every time stereotypes are used in reasoning.
We speak of stereotypes when emotions and value judgments about others are not linked to a direct experience with the person, but to the reactions aroused by a word or idea capable of generating certain expectations.
Prejudicial and stereotyped thinking is linked, for example, to the phenomenon of racism: every time people perceive a threat to their in-groupthey may resort to prejudices and stereotypes to protect themselves.
Prejudice, stereotype and discrimination: what are the differences?
Often the terms prejudice, stereotype And discrimination they are used as synonyms, but in reality they indicate distinct phenomena, even if connected to each other.
- Stereotype: is a simplified and generalized belief or set of beliefs about a group of people. Stereotypes can be both positive and negative and represent a mental shortcut that helps us interpret reality, but they risk flattening individual differences.
- Prejudice: it is an attitude, often negative, towards a group or its members, based on stereotypes and not on direct personal experiences. Prejudice implies a hasty and unjustified evaluation.
- Discrimination: it is behavior that derives from prejudices and stereotypes, and manifests itself through actions that disadvantage or exclude people belonging to certain groups. For example, denying someone a job just because of their ethnic origin is a discriminatory act.
A current example can be observed in the world of work, where, according to research by the National Institute for the Analysis of Public Policies (INAPP, 2022), 27% of Italian women declared having suffered at least one form of gender discrimination during their career.
The consequences of prejudices: social and individual impact
Prejudices are not just abstract ideas: they have concrete effects both on the people who suffer them and on society as a whole.
- Psychological well-being: those who are victims of prejudice can experience anxiety, stress, low self-esteem and a sense of exclusion. According to a review published in “The Lancet Psychiatry” (2016), exposure to discrimination and prejudice may be associated with an increased risk of depressive and anxiety disorders.
- Social relations: Prejudices can hinder the creation of authentic bonds between people from different groups, fueling mistrust and isolation.
- Opportunities and rights: Discrimination limits access to critical resources such as jobs, education and health services, helping to perpetuate social inequalities.
- Social climate: a society in which prejudices are widespread tends to be less cohesive and more conflictual, with negative repercussions on the quality of life of all citizens.
Prejudices in everyday life: some examples
Prejudices can manifest themselves in subtle and daily ways, influencing our choices and behaviors even without us realizing it.
- In language: Expressions such as “drive like a woman” or “you are as precise as a German” are examples of stereotypes that can reinforce gender or national prejudices.
- In work decisions: a study conducted by the University of Milan-Bicocca (2021) highlighted that candidates with foreign names can receive 30% fewer positive responses than candidates with Italian names, for the same CV.
- In the school: children and young people belonging to ethnic minorities may be subject to lower expectations from teachers, negatively influencing their performance and self-esteem.
- News events: episodes of racism in stadiums or acts of discrimination against LGBTQ+ people are unfortunately still frequent and demonstrate how prejudices are rooted in our society.
Strategies to recognize and manage prejudices and stereotypes
Recognizing your own prejudices is the first step to reducing their impact on your daily life. Here are some practical strategies:
- Self-reflection: stopping to reflect on one’s automatic reactions and thoughts can help identify internalized stereotypes.
- Expose yourself to diversity: associating with people with backgrounds different from one’s own promotes understanding and reduces the tendency to generalize.
- Get informed and updated: reading, listening to stories and learning about different cultures and groups broadens your perspective and helps you overcome prejudices.
- Question stereotypes: Asking yourself whether your beliefs about a group are based on real experiences or pre-packaged ideas can be a useful exercise.
- Promote dialogue: Talking openly about prejudice and discrimination, even within family or friends, helps create awareness and encourage change.
These small steps, if practiced consistently, can improve individual well-being and help build a more inclusive society.
Take the first step towards greater self-awareness
Recognizing prejudices, both those we suffer and those we, sometimes unconsciously, put into practice, can be an act of courage and personal growth. If you feel the need to delve deeper into the topic of identity, relationships between groups or you want to work on how prejudices influence your well-being and your choices, talking to a psychologist can be a valid help. In Evidence Network you will find professionals ready to listen to you and support you on a path of greater awareness and inclusion, both towards yourself and others. If you wish, you can start the questionnaire to find your psychologist online and take the first step towards greater well-being.
